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#	Question	Answer
1	Why is reproduction considered a vital process?	Reproduction is vital because species cannot survive for long without it.
2	Through which means does each individual leave its progeny?	Each individual leaves its progeny by asexual or sexual means.
3	What is the advantage of sexual reproduction?	Sexual reproduction enables creation of new variants, enhancing survival advantage.
4	Who was Panchanan Maheshwari?	Panchanan Maheshwari was one of the most distinguished botanists of India and the world.
5	In which field did Panchanan Maheshwari work extensively?	He worked on embryological aspects and popularised embryological characters in taxonomy.
6	Why are flowers important in sexual reproduction?	Flowers help in sexual reproduction by aiding formation of fruits and seeds.
7	What attracts humans to flowers according to the text?	Scents, perfumes, rich colours, and beauty of flowers attract humans.
8	What do all flowering plants show?	All flowering plants show sexual reproduction.
9	What are the end products of sexual reproduction in flowering plants?	Fruits and seeds.
10	What does the chapter aim to explain about angiosperms?	The morphology, structure, and processes of sexual reproduction in flowering plants.
11	What values are associated with flowers in human life?	Aesthetic, ornamental, social, religious, and cultural values.
12	According to biologists, what are flowers considered?	Morphological and embryological marvels and the sites of sexual reproduction.
13	What are the two most important units of sexual reproduction that develop in a flower?	Male and female reproductive units.
14	What occurs before the actual flower appears on a plant?	The decision that the plant is going to flower takes place.
15	What changes are initiated before flowering?	Several hormonal and structural changes are initiated.
16	What develops from floral primordium?	Inflorescences, floral buds, and flowers.
17	What are the male and female reproductive structures in a flower?	Androecium (male) and gynoecium (female).
18	What does the androecium consist of?	A whorl of stamens representing the male reproductive organ.
19	What does the gynoecium represent?	The female reproductive organ.
20	What are the two main parts of a typical stamen?	The filament and the anther.
21	What is the filament in a stamen?	It is the long and slender stalk of the stamen.
22	What is the anther?	It is the terminal generally bilobed structure of the stamen.
23	Where is the proximal end of the filament attached?	To the thalamus or the petal of the flower.
24	What is meant by a dithecous anther?	A bilobed anther with two theca in each lobe.
25	What separates the theca in an anther?	A longitudinal groove running lengthwise.
26	What is the shape of a typical anther in transverse section?	A four-sided (tetragonal) structure.
27	How many microsporangia are present in a typical anther?	Four microsporangia, two in each lobe.
28	Into what do microsporangia develop?	Pollen sacs.
29	What do pollen sacs contain?	Pollen grains.
30	Name the four wall layers of a microsporangium.	Epidermis, endothecium, middle layers, and tapetum.
31	What is the function of the outer three wall layers of the microsporangium?	Protection and helping in dehiscence of anther to release pollen.
32	Which is the innermost wall layer of the microsporangium?	Tapetum.
33	What is the function of the tapetum?	It nourishes the developing pollen grains.
34	What is special about tapetal cells?	They possess dense cytoplasm and generally have more than one nucleus.
35	What occupies the centre of each microsporangium in a young anther?	Sporogenous tissue.
36	What is sporogenous tissue?	A group of compactly arranged homogenous cells present in the centre of each microsporangium.
37	What is microsporogenesis?	The process of formation of microspores from a pollen mother cell through meiosis.
38	What is formed after meiotic division of sporogenous tissue?	Microspore tetrads.
39	What is another name for pollen mother cell?	Potential pollen or microspore mother cell.
40	How are microspores arranged immediately after formation?	In a cluster of four cells called a microspore tetrad.
41	What happens to microspores as the anther matures?	They dissociate and develop into pollen grains.
42	What are pollen grains?	They represent the male gametophytes.
43	What variation is seen in pollen grains of different species?	Variation in sizes, shapes, colours, and designs.
44	What is the usual shape and size of pollen grains?	They are generally spherical and measure about 25–50 micrometers in diameter.
45	What are the two layers of the pollen grain wall?	Exine and intine.
46	What is the exine made up of?	Sporopollenin.
47	Why is sporopollenin important?	It is one of the most resistant organic materials known.
48	What conditions can sporopollenin withstand?	High temperatures and strong acids and alkali.
49	What are germ pores?	Apertures in the exine where sporopollenin is absent.
50	Why are pollen grains well preserved as fossils?	Due to the presence of sporopollenin in the exine.
51	What is the intine made of?	Cellulose and pectin.
52	Which membrane surrounds the cytoplasm of the pollen grain?	Plasma membrane.
53	Which two cells are present in a mature pollen grain?	Vegetative cell and generative cell.
54	Describe the vegetative cell of a pollen grain.	It is bigger, has abundant food reserve, and a large irregularly shaped nucleus.
55	Describe the generative cell of a pollen grain.	It is small, spindle-shaped, has dense cytoplasm, and floats in the cytoplasm of the vegetative cell.
56	In how many angiosperms are pollen grains shed at the 2-celled stage?	More than 60 per cent of angiosperms.
57	What happens in the 3-celled stage of pollen grains?	The generative cell divides mitotically to form two male gametes before shedding.
58	Which disorders can pollen grains cause in some people?	Asthma, bronchitis, and chronic respiratory disorders.
59	Which plant is commonly known as carrot grass and causes pollen allergy?	Parthenium.
60	What factors affect the viability of pollen grains?	Prevailing temperature and humidity.
61	How long do pollen grains of rice and wheat remain viable?	About 30 minutes after release.
62	Which plant families maintain pollen viability for months?	Rosaceae, Leguminoseae, and Solanaceae.
63	What are pollen banks?	Stored pollen grains preserved for years and used in crop breeding programmes.
64	Why are pollen grains used as food supplements?	Because they are rich in nutrients.
65	What is claimed about pollen consumption?	It increases the performance of athletes and race horses.
66	What does the gynoecium represent?	The female reproductive part of the flower.
67	What are megasporangia commonly called?	Ovules.
68	How many ovules may be present in an ovary?	The number may range from one to many.
69	Give examples of plants having a single ovule in the ovary.	Wheat, paddy, and mango.
70	Give examples of plants having many ovules in the ovary.	Papaya, watermelon, and orchids.
71	What is the stalk that attaches the ovule to the placenta called?	Funicle.
72	What is hilum in an ovule?	The region where the body of the ovule fuses with the funicle.
73	What are integuments?	Protective envelopes surrounding the ovule.
74	What is micropyle?	A small opening at the tip of the integuments.
75	What is chalaza in an ovule?	The basal part of the ovule opposite the micropylar end.
76	What is nucellus?	A mass of cells enclosed within the integuments.
77	What is the function of nucellus cells?	They contain abundant reserve food materials.
78	What is embryo sac?	The female gametophyte located in the nucellus.
79	How many embryo sacs are generally present in an ovule?	Usually one embryo sac.
80	What is megasporogenesis?	The process of formation of megaspores from the megaspore mother cell.
81	What does MMC stand for?	Megaspore Mother Cell.
82	Where is the MMC generally located?	In the micropylar region of the nucellus.
83	Describe the megaspore mother cell (MMC).	It is a large cell containing dense cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus.
84	What is the result of meiosis in MMC?	Formation of four megaspores.
85	In most flowering plants, how many megaspores are functional?	Only one megaspore is functional.
86	What happens to the other three megaspores in flowering plants?	They degenerate.
87	Which structure develops into the female gametophyte?	The functional megaspore.
88	What is monosporic development?	Formation of the embryo sac from a single megaspore.
89	What happens during the formation of the embryo sac from the functional megaspore?	The nucleus of the functional megaspore divides mitotically to form two nuclei that move to opposite poles.
90	What is formed after the first mitotic division of the functional megaspore nucleus?	A 2-nucleate embryo sac.
91	What is produced after two more mitotic divisions in the embryo sac?	4-nucleate and then 8-nucleate stages of the embryo sac.
92	What is meant by free nuclear divisions in embryo sac formation?	Nuclear divisions not immediately followed by cell wall formation.
93	What happens after the 8-nucleate stage of the embryo sac?	Cell walls are laid down, organising the typical female gametophyte or embryo sac.
94	How many nuclei are surrounded by cell walls in the mature embryo sac?	Six nuclei.
95	What are polar nuclei?	Two nuclei situated below the egg apparatus in the large central cell.
96	How many cells and nuclei are present in a mature angiosperm embryo sac?	It is 7-celled and 8-nucleate.
97	What is the egg apparatus?	Three cells grouped together at the micropylar end of the embryo sac.
98	What are the components of the egg apparatus?	Two synergids and one egg cell.
99	What is the function of filiform apparatus in synergids?	It guides pollen tubes into the synergid.
100	What are antipodals?	Three cells located at the chalazal end of the embryo sac.
101	What is pollination?	Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a pistil.
102	What are the three types of pollination based on the source of pollen?	Autogamy, geitonogamy, and xenogamy.
103	What is autogamy?	Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower.
104	Why is complete autogamy rare in open flowers?	Because it requires synchrony in pollen release and stigma receptivity and close positioning of anthers and stigma.
105	What are chasmogamous flowers?	Flowers with exposed anthers and stigma.
106	What are cleistogamous flowers?	Flowers that do not open at all.
107	Name some plants producing cleistogamous flowers.	Viola, Oxalis, and Commelina.
108	Why are cleistogamous flowers invariably autogamous?	Because the anthers and stigma lie close together and there is no chance of cross-pollen landing on the stigma.
109	What is the advantage of cleistogamous flowers?	They produce assured seed-set even in the absence of pollinators.
110	What is geitonogamy?	Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another flower of the same plant.
111	Why is geitonogamy genetically similar to autogamy?	Because the pollen grains come from the same plant.
112	What is xenogamy?	Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a different plant.
113	Which type of pollination brings genetically different pollen grains to the stigma?	Xenogamy.
114	Which type of abiotic pollination is more common in flowering plants?	Wind pollination.
115	What characteristics do wind-pollinated pollen grains possess?	They are light and non-sticky.
116	Why do wind-pollinated flowers have well-exposed stamens?	To allow easy dispersal of pollen into wind currents.
117	What type of stigma is commonly found in wind-pollinated flowers?	Large and feathery stigma.
118	Why do wind-pollinated flowers have feathery stigmas?	To easily trap air-borne pollen grains.
119	What is a common feature of ovaries in wind-pollinated flowers?	They often contain a single ovule.
120	In which plant family is wind pollination very common?	Grasses.
121	How common is water pollination in flowering plants?	It is quite rare and limited to about 30 genera, mostly monocotyledons.
122	Name two freshwater plants pollinated by water.	Vallisneria and Hydrilla.
123	Name a marine sea-grass pollinated by water.	Zostera.
124	How does pollination occur in Vallisneria?	Female flowers reach the water surface by long stalks and male flowers or pollen grains are carried by water currents to the stigma.
125	What is special about pollen grains of many water-pollinated species?	They are protected from wetting by a mucilaginous covering.
126	Why are wind- and water-pollinated flowers generally not colourful and nectarless?	Because they do not require animal attraction for pollination.
127	Which animals commonly act as pollinating agents?	Bees, butterflies, flies, beetles, wasps, ants, moths, birds, and bats.
128	Which are the dominant biotic pollinating agents?	Insects, particularly bees.
129	Which unusual animals have also been reported as pollinators?	Primates, arboreal rodents, and reptiles like gecko and garden lizards.
130	What are the features of insect-pollinated flowers?	They are large, colourful, fragrant, and rich in nectar.
131	Why are small insect-pollinated flowers often grouped into inflorescences?	To make them conspicuous.
132	What attracts animals to flowers?	Colour and/or fragrance.
133	Which flowers produce foul odours and why?	Flowers pollinated by flies and beetles produce foul odours to attract these animals.
134	What are the common floral rewards offered to pollinators?	Nectar and pollen grains.
135	How does pollination occur in animal-pollinated flowers?	The animal body gets coated with sticky pollen grains and transfers them to the stigma.
136	What special reward is provided by some flowers besides nectar and pollen?	Safe places for animals to lay eggs.
137	Which plant has the tallest flower mentioned in the text?	Amorphophallus.
138	What are pollen/nectar robbers?	Floral visitors that consume pollen or nectar without bringing about pollination.
139	Why do flowering plants develop outbreeding devices?	To discourage self-pollination and encourage cross-pollination.
140	What is inbreeding depression?	The harmful effect resulting from continued self-pollination.
141	How does non-synchronisation of pollen release and stigma receptivity prevent self-pollination?	Pollen is released before stigma becomes receptive or stigma becomes receptive before pollen release.
142	How does spatial separation of anther and stigma help prevent autogamy?	It prevents pollen from coming in contact with the stigma of the same flower.
143	What is self-incompatibility?	A genetic mechanism that prevents self-pollen from fertilising ovules.
144	How does self-incompatibility inhibit fertilisation?	By preventing pollen germination or pollen tube growth in the pistil.
145	How do unisexual flowers prevent autogamy?	Male and female flowers are separate, preventing self-pollination within the same flower.
146	What is monoecy?	Presence of male and female flowers on the same plant.
147	Name two monoecious plants mentioned in the text.	Castor and maize.
148	What is dioecy?	Condition in which male and female flowers are present on different plants.
149	Which plant is given as an example of dioecy?	Papaya.
150	What does the pistil recognise during pollen-pistil interaction?	Whether the pollen is compatible or incompatible.
151	What happens if the pollen is compatible?	The pistil accepts the pollen and promotes post-pollination events leading to fertilisation.
152	What happens if the pollen is incompatible?	The pistil rejects it by preventing pollen germination or pollen tube growth.
153	What mediates the dialogue between pollen grain and pistil?	Chemical components of pollen interacting with those of the pistil.
154	Through what structure does the pollen grain germinate on the stigma?	Through one of the germ pores.
155	What is formed when a pollen grain germinates on the stigma?	A pollen tube.
156	Through which structures does the pollen tube grow to reach the ovary?	Through the tissues of the stigma and style.
157	What happens to the generative cell in 2-celled pollen grains?	It divides to form two male gametes during pollen tube growth.
158	In 3-celled pollen grains, what does the pollen tube carry from the beginning?	Two male gametes.
159	Through which opening does the pollen tube enter the ovule?	Micropyle.
160	Through which structure does the pollen tube enter the synergid?	Filiform apparatus.
161	What is pollen-pistil interaction?	All events from pollen deposition on the stigma until pollen tube enters the ovule.
162	Why is knowledge of pollen-pistil interaction important to plant breeders?	It helps manipulate incompatible pollinations to obtain desired hybrids.
163	How can pollen germination be studied experimentally?	By dusting pollen grains on a glass slide containing about 10% sugar solution and observing under a microscope.
164	Which plants are suggested for studying pollen germination?	Pea, chickpea, Crotalaria, balsam, and Vinca.
165	What is artificial hybridisation?	A major approach in crop improvement involving crossing different species or genera to combine desirable characters.
166	Why do breeders perform artificial hybridisation?	To produce commercially superior varieties by combining desirable characters.
167	Why must only desired pollen grains be used in hybridisation experiments?	To avoid contamination from unwanted pollen and ensure desired crosses.
168	Which techniques are used to prevent unwanted pollination in artificial hybridisation?	Emasculation and bagging.
169	What is emasculation?	Removal of anthers from bisexual flower buds before anther dehiscence using forceps.
170	Why is emasculation performed?	To prevent self-pollination in bisexual flowers.
171	What is bagging?	Covering emasculated flowers with a suitable bag to prevent contamination by unwanted pollen.
172	What material is generally used for bagging?	Butter paper bags.
173	What is done when the stigma of a bagged flower becomes receptive?	Desired pollen grains are dusted on the stigma and the flower is rebagged.
174	Why is emasculation not required in unisexual female flowers?	Because they do not possess anthers.
175	What is double fertilisation?	The occurrence of syngamy and triple fusion in the same embryo sac.
176	What happens after the pollen tube enters a synergid?	It releases two male gametes into the cytoplasm of the synergid.
177	What is syngamy?	Fusion of one male gamete with the egg nucleus to form the zygote.
178	What is formed as a result of syngamy?	A diploid zygote.
179	What is triple fusion?	Fusion of the second male gamete with the two polar nuclei in the central cell.
180	What is formed after triple fusion?	A triploid primary endosperm nucleus (PEN).
181	Why is triple fusion called so?	Because it involves fusion of three haploid nuclei.
182	What does the central cell become after triple fusion?	The primary endosperm cell (PEC).
183	What develops from the primary endosperm cell (PEC)?	Endosperm.
184	What develops from the zygote?	Embryo.
185	What are post-fertilisation events?	Events including endosperm and embryo development, maturation of ovules into seeds, and ovary into fruit.
186	Which develops first: endosperm or embryo?	Endosperm development precedes embryo development.
187	What is the function of endosperm tissue?	It stores reserve food materials for the developing embryo.
188	What is free-nuclear endosperm?	The stage of endosperm development in which the primary endosperm nucleus undergoes repeated nuclear divisions without cell wall formation.
189	What happens after free-nuclear divisions in endosperm development?	Cell wall formation occurs and the endosperm becomes cellular.
190	What does coconut water represent biologically?	Free-nuclear endosperm.
191	What does the white kernel of coconut represent?	Cellular endosperm.
192	In which seeds is endosperm completely consumed before seed maturation?	Pea, groundnut, and beans.
193	In which seeds does endosperm persist in the mature seed?	Castor and coconut.
194	Where does the embryo develop in the embryo sac?	At the micropylar end where the zygote is situated.
195	Why do most zygotes divide only after some endosperm is formed?	To provide assured nutrition to the developing embryo.
196	What are the stages of embryogeny in a dicot embryo?	Proembryo, globular, heart-shaped, and mature embryo stages.
197	What are the main parts of a typical dicotyledonous embryo?	Embryonal axis and two cotyledons.
198	What is epicotyl?	The portion of the embryonal axis above the cotyledons that terminates in the plumule.
199	What is plumule?	The stem tip of the embryo.
200	What is hypocotyl?	The cylindrical portion of the embryonal axis below the cotyledons.
201	What does the hypocotyl terminate into?	The radicle or root tip.
202	What covers the root tip in the embryo?	Root cap.
203	How many cotyledons are present in monocot embryos?	One cotyledon.
204	What is the cotyledon in grasses called?	Scutellum.
205	What is coleorrhiza?	An undifferentiated sheath enclosing the radicle and root cap in monocot embryos.
206	What is coleoptile?	A hollow foliar structure enclosing the shoot apex and leaf primordia in monocot embryos.
207	What is a seed in angiosperms?	The final product of sexual reproduction and a fertilised ovule.
208	Where are seeds formed?	Inside fruits.
209	What are the main components of a seed?	Seed coats, cotyledons, and embryo axis.
210	Why are cotyledons generally thick and swollen?	Due to storage of food reserves.
211	What are non-albuminous seeds?	Seeds in which endosperm is completely consumed during embryo development.
212	Give examples of non-albuminous seeds.	Pea and groundnut.
213	What are albuminous seeds?	Seeds that retain a part of the endosperm during embryo development.
214	Give examples of albuminous seeds.	Wheat, maize, barley, and castor.
215	What is perisperm?	Residual persistent nucellus present in some seeds.
216	Name seeds in which perisperm is present.	Black pepper and beet.
217	What do integuments develop into after seed maturation?	Tough protective seed coats.
218	What is the function of micropyle in the seed coat?	It facilitates entry of oxygen and water during germination.
219	What happens to seed water content during maturation?	It is reduced and seeds become relatively dry.
220	What is the usual moisture content of mature seeds?	About 10–15% by mass.
221	What is dormancy in seeds?	A state of inactivity entered by the embryo.
222	Under what conditions do seeds germinate?	Adequate moisture, oxygen, and suitable temperature.
223	What develops into the fruit after fertilisation?	Ovary.
224	What is pericarp?	The wall of the fruit developed from the ovary wall.
225	Give examples of fleshy fruits.	Guava, orange, and mango.
226	Give examples of dry fruits.	Groundnut and mustard.
227	What are false fruits?	Fruits in which thalamus also contributes to fruit formation.
228	Name examples of false fruits.	Apple, strawberry, and cashew.
229	What are true fruits?	Fruits that develop only from the ovary.
230	What are parthenocarpic fruits?	Fruits that develop without fertilisation.
231	Give an example of a parthenocarpic fruit.	Banana.
232	How can parthenocarpy be induced?	By application of growth hormones.
233	Why are parthenocarpic fruits seedless?	Because they develop without fertilisation.
234	Why is seed formation more dependable in angiosperms?	Because pollination and fertilisation are independent of water.
235	How do seeds help angiosperms colonise new habitats?	They possess adaptive strategies for dispersal.
236	Why are young seedlings nourished after germination?	Seeds contain sufficient food reserves.
237	What protects the young embryo in a seed?	The hard seed coat.
238	Why are seeds considered important for agriculture?	They can be stored and used for food and raising crops in the next season.
239	How long can seeds remain viable in some species?	For several years or even hundreds of years.
240	Which is the oldest recorded viable seed mentioned in the text?	Lupinus arcticus from Arctic Tundra, viable after about 10,000 years.
241	Which 2000-year-old viable seed was discovered near the Dead Sea?	Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera).
242	What is apomixis?	A form of asexual reproduction that mimics sexual reproduction and produces seeds without fertilisation.
243	Which plant groups commonly show apomixis?	Some species of Asteraceae and grasses.
244	What is fruit production without fertilisation called?	Parthenocarpy.
245	How does apomictic embryo development occur in some species?	Diploid egg cells form without reduction division and develop into embryos without fertilisation.
246	How does polyembryony occur in Citrus and Mango?	Nucellar cells surrounding the embryo sac divide and develop into embryos.
247	What is polyembryony?	Occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed.
248	Why are hybrid varieties widely cultivated?	Because they greatly increase productivity.
249	What is a major problem associated with hybrid seeds?	Hybrid seeds must be produced every year because progeny segregate and lose hybrid characters.
250	Why are hybrid seeds expensive for farmers?	Because production of hybrid seeds is costly.
251	What is the advantage of converting hybrids into apomicts?	Hybrid characters are maintained without segregation in future generations.
252	Why is apomixis important in the hybrid seed industry?	It allows farmers to reuse hybrid seeds year after year without buying new seeds.
253	What is the focus of current research on apomixis?	Understanding the genetics of apomixis and transferring apomictic genes into hybrid varieties.
254	What are the male reproductive organs in flowers?	Androecium consisting of stamens.
255	What are the female reproductive organs in flowers?	Gynoecium consisting of pistils.
256	Describe a typical anther.	It is bilobed, dithecous, and tetrasporangiate.
257	Where do pollen grains develop?	Inside the microsporangia.
258	Name the four wall layers surrounding the microsporangium.	Epidermis, endothecium, middle layers, and tapetum.
259	What process forms tetrads of microspores?	Microsporogenesis.
260	What do pollen grains represent?	Male gametophytic generation.
261	What are the two layers of the pollen grain wall?	Exine and intine.
262	What is exine made of?	Sporopollenin.
263	What are germ pores?	Openings in the exine.
264	What cells may be present in pollen grains at shedding?	Either two cells (vegetative and generative) or three cells (vegetative and two male gametes).
265	What are the three parts of a pistil?	Stigma, style, and ovary.
266	What is the mature embryo sac of angiosperms like?	It is 7-celled and 8-nucleate.
267	Can cross-pollination occur in cleistogamous flowers?	No, because cleistogamous flowers do not open and ensure self-pollination only.
268	Mention two strategies evolved to prevent self-pollination.	1. Self-incompatibility, 2. Production of unisexual flowers
269	What is self-incompatibility?	A genetic mechanism that prevents self-pollen from fertilising ovules.
270	Why does self-pollination not lead to seed formation in self-incompatible species?	Because pollen germination or pollen tube growth is inhibited.
271	What is bagging technique?	Covering flowers with bags to prevent contamination from unwanted pollen.
272	How is bagging useful in plant breeding programmes?	It ensures that only desired pollen grains reach the stigma.
273	What is triple fusion?	Fusion of one male gamete with two polar nuclei in the central cell.
274	Where does triple fusion take place?	In the central cell of the embryo sac.
275	Which nuclei are involved in triple fusion?	One male gamete nucleus and two polar nuclei.
276	Why is the zygote dormant for some time in a fertilised ovule?	To allow endosperm formation first for nourishment of the embryo.
277	Differentiate between hypocotyl and epicotyl.	Epicotyl is above the cotyledons and ends in the plumule, while hypocotyl is below the cotyledons and ends in the radicle.
278	Differentiate between coleoptile and coleorrhiza.	Coleoptile encloses the shoot apex, while coleorrhiza encloses the radicle and root cap.
279	Differentiate between integument and testa.	Integuments are protective coverings of the ovule, while testa is the outer seed coat formed after maturation.
280	Differentiate between perisperm and pericarp.	Perisperm is persistent nucellus in seeds, while pericarp is the fruit wall formed from the ovary wall.
281	Why is apple called a false fruit?	Because thalamus contributes to fruit formation along with the ovary.
282	What is emasculation?	Removal of anthers from bisexual flowers before dehiscence.