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#	Question	Answer
1	What type of coordination does the neural system provide?	Point-to-point rapid coordination among organs.
2	Why is another coordination system needed apart from the neural system?	Neural coordination is fast but short-lived, and nerve fibres do not innervate all body cells.
3	Which systems jointly coordinate and regulate physiological functions in the body?	The neural system and the endocrine system.
4	Why are endocrine glands called ductless glands?	Because they lack ducts.
5	What are the secretions of endocrine glands called?	Hormones.
6	Define hormones according to the modern definition.	Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals which act as intercellular messengers and are produced in trace amounts.
7	What is the main role of hormones in the body?	They provide chemical coordination, integration, and regulation.
8	Which organisms possess very simple endocrine systems with few hormones?	Invertebrates.
9	Name the organised endocrine bodies in the human body.	Pituitary, pineal, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, parathyroid, thymus, and gonads.
10	Which gonads are present in males and females?	Testis in males and ovary in females.
11	Name some organs other than endocrine glands that also produce hormones.	Gastrointestinal tract, liver, kidney, and heart.
12	What constitutes the endocrine system?	Endocrine glands and hormone-producing diffused tissues/cells located in different parts of the body.
13	Which part of the brain is the hypothalamus associated with?	The basal part of diencephalon of the forebrain.
14	What type of cells are present in the hypothalamus?	Neurosecretory cells called nuclei.
15	What is the function of hypothalamic hormones?	They regulate the synthesis and secretion of pituitary hormones.
16	What are the two types of hypothalamic hormones?	Releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones.
17	What is the function of releasing hormones?	They stimulate secretion of pituitary hormones.
18	What is the function of inhibiting hormones?	They inhibit secretion of pituitary hormones.
19	What does GnRH stand for?	Gonadotrophin releasing hormone.
20	What is the function of GnRH?	It stimulates pituitary synthesis and release of gonadotrophins.
21	Which hypothalamic hormone inhibits the release of growth hormone?	Somatostatin.
22	How do hypothalamic hormones reach the pituitary gland?	Through a portal circulatory system.
23	Which part of the pituitary is under direct neural regulation of the hypothalamus?	The posterior pituitary.
24	Where is the pituitary gland located?	In a bony cavity called sella tursica.
25	To which structure is the pituitary gland attached?	Hypothalamus by a stalk.
26	Into which two parts is the pituitary gland anatomically divided?	Adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis.
27	Which two portions make up the adenohypophysis?	Pars distalis and pars intermedia.
28	What is another name for pars distalis?	Anterior pituitary.
29	Which hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary?	GH, PRL, TSH, ACTH, LH and FSH.
30	Which hormone is secreted by pars intermedia?	Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH).
31	What is another name for neurohypophysis?	Posterior pituitary or pars nervosa.
32	Which hormones are stored and released by the posterior pituitary?	Oxytocin and vasopressin.
33	Where are oxytocin and vasopressin actually synthesised?	In the hypothalamus.
34	What condition is caused by over-secretion of growth hormone (GH)?	Gigantism.
35	What results from low secretion of GH?	Pituitary dwarfism.
36	What is acromegaly?	Severe disfigurement caused by excess secretion of growth hormone in adults.
37	What is the function of prolactin (PRL)?	It regulates growth of mammary glands and milk formation.
38	What is the function of TSH?	It stimulates synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones.
39	What is the function of ACTH?	It stimulates secretion of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex.
40	Why are LH and FSH called gonadotrophins?	Because they stimulate gonadal activity.
41	What does LH stimulate in males?	Synthesis and secretion of androgens from testis.
42	What regulates spermatogenesis in males?	FSH and androgens.
43	What is the role of LH in females?	It induces ovulation and maintains the corpus luteum.
44	What is the function of FSH in females?	It stimulates growth and development of ovarian follicles.
45	On which cells does MSH act?	Melanocytes.
46	What is the function of MSH?	Regulation of skin pigmentation.
47	What is the function of oxytocin?	It stimulates contraction of smooth muscles.
48	What are the functions of oxytocin in females?	Vigorous uterine contraction during childbirth and milk ejection from mammary glands.
49	What is another name for vasopressin?	Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH).
50	What is the main action of vasopressin?	It stimulates resorption of water and electrolytes by distal tubules of kidney.
51	What condition results from impaired synthesis or release of ADH?	Diabetes insipidus.
52	Where is the pineal gland located?	On the dorsal side of forebrain.
53	Which hormone is secreted by the pineal gland?	Melatonin.
54	What is the major role of melatonin?	Regulation of 24-hour diurnal rhythm.
55	Which body rhythms are maintained by melatonin?	Sleep-wake cycle and body temperature rhythms.
56	Besides diurnal rhythm, what else does melatonin influence?	Metabolism, pigmentation, menstrual cycle, and defense capability.
57	How many lobes does the thyroid gland have?	Two lobes.
58	Where is the thyroid gland located?	On either side of the trachea.
59	What connects the two lobes of the thyroid gland?	Isthmus.
60	What tissues make up the thyroid gland?	Follicles and stromal tissues.
61	Which hormones are synthesised by thyroid follicular cells?	Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3).
62	Which mineral is essential for thyroid hormone synthesis?	Iodine.
63	What is caused by iodine deficiency?	Hypothyroidism and goitre.
64	What is cretinism?	Stunted growth due to hypothyroidism during pregnancy.
65	What are some effects of cretinism?	Mental retardation, low IQ, abnormal skin, and deaf-mutism.
66	What may hypothyroidism cause in adult women?	Irregular menstrual cycle.
67	What causes hyperthyroidism?	Increased synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones due to thyroid cancer or nodules.
68	What is exophthalmic goitre?	A form of hyperthyroidism characterised by enlarged thyroid gland, protruding eyeballs, increased basal metabolic rate, and weight loss.
69	What is the role of thyroid hormones in metabolism?	They regulate basal metabolic rate and metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
70	Which process related to blood cells is supported by thyroid hormones?	Red blood cell formation.
71	What balance is influenced by thyroid hormones?	Water and electrolyte balance.
72	Which protein hormone is secreted by the thyroid gland?	Thyrocalcitonin (TCT).
73	What is the function of thyrocalcitonin (TCT)?	It regulates blood calcium levels.
74	How many parathyroid glands are present in humans?	Four.
75	Where are the parathyroid glands located?	On the back side of the thyroid gland.
76	Which hormone is secreted by the parathyroid glands?	Parathyroid hormone (PTH).
77	By what factor is the secretion of PTH regulated?	Circulating levels of calcium ions.
78	On which tissue does PTH act to increase calcium levels?	Bones.
79	What process in bones is stimulated by PTH?	Bone resorption (dissolution/demineralisation).
80	Along with which hormone does PTH maintain calcium balance?	Thyrocalcitonin (TCT).
81	Where is the thymus gland located?	Between the lungs behind the sternum on the ventral side of the aorta.
82	What is the major role of the thymus gland?	Development of the immune system.
83	Which hormones are secreted by the thymus gland?	Thymosins.
84	What is the role of thymosins in immunity?	Differentiation of T-lymphocytes for cell-mediated immunity.
85	What type of immunity is provided by T-lymphocytes?	Cell-mediated immunity.
86	How do thymosins help humoral immunity?	By promoting antibody production.
87	What happens to the thymus gland in old individuals?	It degenerates.
88	What is the effect of decreased thymosin production in old age?	Weak immune responses.
89	How many adrenal glands are present in the body?	One pair.
90	Where are adrenal glands located?	One above each kidney.
91	What are the two main parts of the adrenal gland?	Adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex.
92	Which part of the adrenal gland is centrally located?	Adrenal medulla.
93	Which part of the adrenal gland lies outside the medulla?	Adrenal cortex.
94	Which hormones are secreted by the adrenal medulla?	Adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine).
95	What are adrenaline and noradrenaline collectively called?	Catecholamines.
96	Why are adrenaline and noradrenaline called emergency hormones?	Because they are rapidly secreted during stress and emergency situations.
97	What is another name for emergency hormones?	Fight or Flight hormones.
98	Name some effects of catecholamines on the body.	Increased alertness, pupilary dilation, piloerection, sweating, heart beat, and respiration rate.
99	What do catecholamines stimulate besides glycogen breakdown?	Breakdown of lipids and proteins.
100	Into how many layers is the adrenal cortex divided?	Three layers.
101	Name the three layers of the adrenal cortex.	Zona reticularis, zona fasciculata, and zona glomerulosa.
102	Which is the inner layer of adrenal cortex?	Zona reticularis.
103	Which is the middle layer of adrenal cortex?	Zona fasciculata.
104	Which is the outer layer of adrenal cortex?	Zona glomerulosa.
105	What are the hormones secreted by adrenal cortex collectively called?	Corticoids.
106	Which corticoids are involved in carbohydrate metabolism?	Glucocorticoids.
107	What is the main glucocorticoid in the human body?	Cortisol.
108	Which corticoids regulate water and electrolyte balance?	Mineralocorticoids.
109	What is the main mineralocorticoid in the body?	Aldosterone.
110	What metabolic processes are stimulated by glucocorticoids?	Gluconeogenesis, lipolysis, and proteolysis.
111	What effect do glucocorticoids have on amino acid uptake?	They inhibit cellular uptake and utilisation of amino acids.
112	Which body systems are maintained by cortisol?	Cardiovascular system and kidney functions.
113	What anti-immune effect does cortisol produce?	It suppresses the immune response.
114	What effect does cortisol have on inflammation?	Produces anti-inflammatory reactions.
115	Which blood cell production is stimulated by cortisol?	RBC production.
116	Where does aldosterone mainly act?	Renal tubules.
117	What functions are maintained by aldosterone?	Electrolyte balance, body fluid volume, osmotic pressure, and blood pressure.
118	Which androgenic effects are produced by adrenal cortex steroids?	Growth of axial hair, pubic hair, and facial hair during puberty.
119	Why is the pancreas called a composite gland?	Because it acts as both exocrine and endocrine gland.
120	What is the endocrine part of the pancreas called?	Islets of Langerhans.
121	Approximately how many Islets of Langerhans are present in a normal human pancreas?	About 1 to 2 million.
122	What percentage of pancreatic tissue is represented by Islets of Langerhans?	About 1 to 2 per cent.
123	Which are the two main cell types in Islets of Langerhans?	α-cells and β-cells.
124	Which hormone is secreted by α-cells?	Glucagon.
125	Which hormone is secreted by β-cells?	Insulin.
126	What type of hormone is glucagon?	Peptide hormone.
127	On which cells does glucagon mainly act?	Hepatocytes (liver cells).
128	What process is stimulated by glucagon to increase blood sugar?	Glycogenolysis.
129	Which additional process stimulated by glucagon contributes to hyperglycemia?	Gluconeogenesis.
130	Why is glucagon called a hyperglycemic hormone?	Because it increases blood glucose levels.
131	What effect does glucagon have on cellular glucose uptake?	It reduces glucose uptake and utilisation.
132	What is the main role of insulin?	Regulation of glucose homeostasis.
133	On which cells does insulin mainly act?	Hepatocytes and adipocytes.
134	What effect does insulin have on cellular glucose uptake?	It enhances cellular glucose uptake and utilisation.
135	What condition is produced by insulin activity on blood glucose?	Hypoglycemia.
136	What process of glycogen formation is stimulated by insulin?	Glycogenesis.
137	Which two hormones jointly maintain glucose homeostasis?	Insulin and glucagon.
138	What is diabetes mellitus associated with?	Loss of glucose through urine and formation of ketone bodies.
139	How are diabetic patients successfully treated according to the text?	By insulin therapy.
140	Where are the testes located?	In the scrotal sac outside the abdomen.
141	What are the dual functions of testis?	Primary sex organ and endocrine gland.
142	Which cells in testis produce androgens?	Leydig cells or interstitial cells.
143	What is the main androgen secreted by testis?	Testosterone.
144	Name some male accessory sex organs regulated by androgens.	Epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and urethra.
145	What secondary sexual characters are stimulated by androgens?	Muscular growth, facial hair, axillary hair, aggressiveness, and low pitch of voice.
146	What reproductive process is stimulated by androgens?	Spermatogenesis.
147	What is the effect of androgens on male behaviour?	Influence male sexual behaviour (libido).
148	What metabolic effects are produced by androgens?	Anabolic effects on protein and carbohydrate metabolism.
149	Which two steroid hormones are secreted by the ovary?	Estrogen and progesterone.
150	Which structure secretes estrogen?	Growing ovarian follicles.
151	Which structure mainly secretes progesterone?	Corpus luteum.
152	What actions are produced by estrogens?	Stimulation of growth and activities of female secondary sex organs, development of ovarian follicles, female secondary sex characters, and mammary gland development.
153	Which female secondary sex character mentioned is influenced by estrogen?	High pitch of voice.
154	What behavioural role is performed by estrogens?	Regulation of female sexual behaviour.
155	What is the major role of progesterone?	Supporting pregnancy.
156	How does progesterone act on mammary glands?	It stimulates formation of alveoli and milk secretion.
157	What are alveoli in mammary glands?	Sac-like structures which store milk.
158	Which hormone is secreted by the atrial wall of the heart?	Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF).
159	What is the main function of ANF?	Decreases blood pressure.
160	When is ANF secreted?	When blood pressure is increased.
161	How does ANF reduce blood pressure?	By causing dilation of blood vessels.
162	Which kidney cells produce erythropoietin?	Juxtaglomerular cells.
163	What is the function of erythropoietin?	It stimulates erythropoiesis (formation of RBCs).
164	Name the four major peptide hormones secreted by the gastrointestinal tract.	Gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK), and gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP).
165	What is the function of gastrin?	Stimulates secretion of hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen from gastric glands.
166	On which organ does secretin act?	Exocrine pancreas.
167	What does secretin stimulate?	Secretion of water and bicarbonate ions.
168	On which organs does cholecystokinin (CCK) act?	Pancreas and gall bladder.
169	What are the functions of CCK?	Stimulates secretion of pancreatic enzymes and bile juice.
170	What is the function of gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)?	It inhibits gastric secretion and motility.
171	What are growth factors?	Hormones secreted by several non-endocrine tissues.
172	What is the role of growth factors?	Essential for normal tissue growth and repair/regeneration.
173	How do hormones produce effects on target tissues?	By binding to specific hormone receptors.
174	Where are hormone receptors located?	In target tissues only.
175	What are receptors present on the cell membrane called?	Membrane-bound receptors.
176	What are receptors present inside target cells called?	Intracellular receptors.
177	Which intracellular receptors are mostly present in the nucleus?	Nuclear receptors.
178	What is formed when a hormone binds to its receptor?	Hormone-receptor complex.
179	Why are hormone receptors called specific?	Because each receptor is specific to one hormone only.
180	What results from hormone-receptor complex formation?	Biochemical changes in the target tissue.
181	On what basis are hormones divided into groups?	Their chemical nature.
182	Name the four groups of hormones based on chemical nature.	Peptide/protein hormones, steroids, iodothyronines, and amino-acid derivatives.
183	Give examples of peptide or protein hormones.	Insulin, glucagon, pituitary hormones, hypothalamic hormones.
184	Give examples of steroid hormones.	Cortisol, testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone.
185	Which hormones are classified as iodothyronines?	Thyroid hormones.
186	Give an example of an amino-acid derivative hormone.	Epinephrine.
187	What do hormones interacting with membrane-bound receptors generate?	Second messengers.
188	What do second messengers regulate?	Cellular metabolism.
189	How do hormones interacting with intracellular receptors mainly act?	By regulating gene expression or chromosome function.
190	How do intracellular hormone-receptor complexes affect the genome?	Through interaction with the genome.
191	What results from cumulative biochemical actions of hormones?	Physiological and developmental effects.
192	What do hormones provide in the human body?	Chemical coordination, integration, and regulation.
193	What major functions are regulated by hormones?	Metabolism, growth, and development of organs and endocrine glands.
194	Which glands constitute the endocrine system?	Hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, parathyroid, thymus, and gonads.
195	Which gonads are present in males and females?	Testis in males and ovary in females.
196	Name some organs other than endocrine glands that produce hormones.	Gastrointestinal tract, kidney, and heart.
197	Into which three parts is the pituitary gland divided?	Pars distalis, pars intermedia, and pars nervosa.
198	How many trophic hormones are secreted by pars distalis?	Six trophic hormones.
199	How many hormones are secreted by pars intermedia?	One hormone.
200	Which part of pituitary secretes two hormones?	Pars nervosa (neurohypophysis).
201	What is the main role of pituitary hormones?	Regulation of growth and development of somatic tissues and activities of peripheral endocrine glands.
202	Which hormone is secreted by the pineal gland?	Melatonin.
203	What is the major role of melatonin?	Regulation of 24-hour diurnal rhythms.
204	Name two body rhythms regulated by melatonin.	Sleep-wake rhythm and body temperature rhythm.
205	What are the major functions of thyroid hormones?	Regulation of basal metabolic rate, CNS development, erythropoiesis, and metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
206	Which thyroid hormone regulates blood calcium levels by decreasing them?	Thyrocalcitonin.
207	Which hormone is secreted by parathyroid glands?	Parathyroid hormone (PTH).
208	Which hormones are secreted by thymus gland?	Thymosins.
209	What is the role of thymosins?	Differentiation of T-lymphocytes and promotion of antibody production.
210	What type of immunity is provided by T-lymphocytes?	Cell-mediated immunity.
211	Which hormones are secreted by adrenal medulla?	Epinephrine and norepinephrine.
212	Name some effects of adrenal medulla hormones.	Increased alertness, sweating, heart beat, respiration, glycogenolysis, lipolysis, and proteolysis.
213	Which hormones are secreted by adrenal cortex?	Glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids.
214	What are the major functions of glucocorticoids?	Stimulate gluconeogenesis, lipolysis, proteolysis, erythropoiesis, and suppress immune response.
215	What do mineralocorticoids regulate?	Water and electrolyte balance.
216	Which hormones are secreted by endocrine pancreas?	Glucagon and insulin.
217	What is the action of glucagon?	Stimulates glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis causing hyperglycemia.
218	What is the action of insulin?	Stimulates cellular glucose uptake, utilisation, and glycogenesis causing hypoglycemia.
219	What causes diabetes mellitus according to the summary?	Insulin deficiency and/or insulin resistance.
220	Which hormones are secreted by testis?	Androgens.
221	What are the functions of androgens?	Development of male accessory sex organs, spermatogenesis, male sexual behaviour, and anabolic pathways.
222	Which hormones are secreted by ovary?	Estrogen and progesterone.
223	What are the functions of estrogen?	Growth and development of female accessory sex organs and secondary sex characters.
224	What is the major role of progesterone?	Maintenance of pregnancy and mammary gland development.
225	Which hormone is secreted by the atrial wall of the heart?	Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF).
226	What is the function of ANF?	Decreases blood pressure.
227	Which hormone is secreted by the kidney?	Erythropoietin.
228	What is the role of erythropoietin?	Stimulates erythropoiesis.
229	Name the gastrointestinal hormones mentioned in the summary.	Gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin, and gastric inhibitory peptide.
230	What is the collective role of gastrointestinal hormones?	Regulation of digestive juice secretion and aiding digestion.
231	What are endocrine glands also called?	Ductless glands.
232	What are the secretions of endocrine glands called?	Hormones.
233	Which gland secretes hypothalamic hormones?	Hypothalamus.
234	Which gland secretes TSH (thyrotrophin)?	Pituitary gland.
235	Which gland secretes ACTH (corticotrophin)?	Pituitary gland.
236	Which hormones are called gonadotrophins?	LH and FSH.
237	Which gland secretes melanotrophin (MSH)?	Pituitary gland (pars intermedia).
238	Which hormone is responsible for hyperglycemia?	Glucagon.
239	Which hormone is responsible for hypoglycemia?	Insulin.
240	Which hormone is called a hypercalcemic hormone?	Parathyroid hormone (PTH).
241	Give examples of gonadotrophic hormones.	LH and FSH.
242	Which hormone is a progestational hormone?	Progesterone.
243	Which hormone lowers blood pressure?	Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF).
244	Give examples of androgens and estrogens mentioned in the chapter.	Testosterone and estrogen.
245	Deficiency of which hormone causes diabetes mellitus?	Insulin.
246	Deficiency of which nutrient causes goitre?	Iodine.
247	Hypothyroidism during pregnancy leads to which condition in babies?	Cretinism.
248	Which hormone stimulates ovarian follicle growth?	FSH.
249	Which hormone induces ovulation?	LH.
250	Which hormone stimulates glucocorticoid secretion from adrenal cortex?	ACTH.
251	Which hormone stimulates thyroid hormone secretion?	TSH.
252	Which hormone stimulates androgen secretion from testis?	LH.
253	Which gland secretes T4 (thyroxine)?	Thyroid gland.
254	Which gland secretes PTH?	Parathyroid gland.
255	Which gland secretes GnRH?	Hypothalamus.
256	Which gland secretes LH?	Pituitary gland.
257	Which hormone maintains calcium homeostasis?	Parathyroid hormone (PTH).
258	Which hormone regulates skin pigmentation?	MSH.
259	Which hormone is also called ADH?	Vasopressin.
260	Which condition results from impaired ADH secretion?	Diabetes insipidus.
261	Which hormone regulates diurnal rhythm?	Melatonin.
262	Which hormone is secreted by Beta-cells of pancreas?	Insulin.
263	Which hormone is secreted by Alpha cells of pancreas?	Glucagon.
264	Which hormone stimulates glycogenesis?	Insulin.
265	Which hormone stimulates glycogenolysis?	Glucagon.
266	Which hormone supports pregnancy?	Progesterone.
267	Which hormone stimulates milk ejection?	Oxytocin.
268	Which hormone promotes T-lymphocyte differentiation?	Thymosin.
269	Which adrenal hormones are called fight or flight hormones?	Adrenaline and noradrenaline.
270	Which hormone stimulates erythropoiesis?	Erythropoietin.