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#	Question	Answer
1	Who first attempted a scientific basis for classification?	Aristotle attempted a scientific basis for classification.
2	On what basis did Aristotle classify plants?	He classified plants into trees, shrubs and herbs using simple morphological characters.
3	How did Aristotle divide animals?	Into animals with red blood and animals without red blood.
4	Why was the Two Kingdom classification considered inadequate?	Many organisms did not fit into either plants or animals.
5	Name some characteristics later included in classification systems besides gross morphology.	Cell structure, nature of wall, mode of nutrition, habitat, methods of reproduction and evolutionary relationships.
6	Who proposed the Five Kingdom Classification?	R.H. Whittaker (1969).
7	Name the five kingdoms proposed by Whittaker.	Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
8	What were the main criteria used by Whittaker for classification?	Cell structure, body organisation, mode of nutrition, reproduction and phylogenetic relationships.
9	What does the three-domain system do to Kingdom Monera?	It divides Kingdom Monera into two domains.
10	Which organisms were earlier included under the plant kingdom in older classification systems?	Bacteria, blue-green algae, fungi, mosses, ferns, gymnosperms and angiosperms.
11	What common character unified organisms under the old plant kingdom?	Presence of a cell wall.
12	Why were fungi separated into a separate kingdom?	Fungi are heterotrophic and have chitinous cell walls, unlike autotrophic green plants with cellulosic walls.
13	Which kingdom includes all prokaryotic organisms?	Kingdom Monera.
14	Which kingdom includes unicellular eukaryotic organisms?	Kingdom Protista.
15	Which organisms were grouped together in Kingdom Protista?	Chlamydomonas, Chlorella, Paramoecium and Amoeba.
16	What is meant by a phylogenetic classification system?	A system based on evolutionary relationships.
17	Give the cell type of Monera.	Prokaryotic.
18	Give the cell type of Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.	Eukaryotic.
19	What type of cell wall is present in Monera?	Non-cellulosic cell wall made of polysaccharide and amino acid.
20	Which kingdom has chitin in the cell wall?	Fungi.
21	Which kingdom has cellulose in the cell wall?	Plantae.
22	Which kingdom lacks a cell wall?	Animalia.
23	What is the mode of nutrition in Plantae?	Autotrophic (photosynthetic).
24	What is the mode of nutrition in Animalia?	Heterotrophic (holozoic/saprophytic etc.).
25	Which organisms are the sole members of Kingdom Monera?	Bacteria are the sole members of Kingdom Monera.
26	How are bacteria described in terms of abundance?	Bacteria are the most abundant micro-organisms.
27	Where do bacteria occur?	Bacteria occur almost everywhere.
28	Mention some extreme habitats where bacteria can survive.	Hot springs, deserts, snow and deep oceans.
29	In what way do many bacteria live with other organisms?	Many bacteria live in or on other organisms as parasites.
30	On what basis are bacteria grouped into four categories?	On the basis of shape.
31	What is the spherical form of bacteria called?	Coccus (plural: cocci).
32	What is the rod-shaped form of bacteria called?	Bacillus (plural: bacilli).
33	What is the comma-shaped form of bacteria called?	Vibrium (plural: vibrio).
34	What is the spiral-shaped form of bacteria called?	Spirillum (plural: spirilla).
35	How is bacterial structure described?	The bacterial structure is very simple.
36	How is bacterial behaviour described?	Bacteria are very complex in behaviour.
37	Which group of organisms shows the most extensive metabolic diversity?	Bacteria as a group show the most extensive metabolic diversity.
38	What are autotrophic bacteria?	Bacteria that synthesise their own food from inorganic substrates.
39	Name the two types of autotrophic bacteria.	Photosynthetic autotrophic and chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria.
40	What are heterotrophic bacteria?	Bacteria that depend on other organisms or dead organic matter for food.
41	What are archaebacteria?	Special bacteria that live in harsh habitats.
42	Name the three types of archaebacteria based on habitat.	Halophiles, thermoacidophiles and methanogens.
43	Where are halophiles found?	In extreme salty areas.
44	Where are thermoacidophiles found?	In hot springs.
45	Where are methanogens found?	In marshy areas.
46	What feature helps archaebacteria survive extreme conditions?	Their different cell wall structure.
47	In which animals are methanogens present in the gut?	Ruminant animals such as cows and buffaloes.
48	What is the role of methanogens in ruminants?	They produce methane (biogas) from dung.
49	What are eubacteria commonly called?	True bacteria.
50	What are the characteristic features of eubacteria?	Presence of a rigid cell wall and flagellum if motile.
51	What are cyanobacteria also called?	Blue-green algae.
52	Which pigment is present in cyanobacteria?	Chlorophyll a.
53	What is the mode of nutrition in cyanobacteria?	Photosynthetic autotrophic.
54	What forms can cyanobacteria occur in?	Unicellular, colonial or filamentous forms.
55	What type of habitats do cyanobacteria occupy?	Freshwater, marine and terrestrial habitats.
56	What surrounds cyanobacterial colonies?	A gelatinous sheath.
57	What are blooms formed by cyanobacteria in polluted water bodies called?	Blooms.
58	What are heterocysts?	Specialised cells that fix atmospheric nitrogen.
59	Name two cyanobacteria having heterocysts.	Nostoc and Anabaena.
60	What do chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria oxidise?	Inorganic substances such as nitrates, nitrites and ammonia.
61	What is the role of chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria in nature?	Recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron and sulphur.
62	Which bacteria are most abundant in nature?	Heterotrophic bacteria are most abundant in nature.
63	What is the major ecological role of most heterotrophic bacteria?	They act as important decomposers.
64	Mention two useful activities of bacteria for humans.	Making curd from milk and production of antibiotics.
65	What role do some bacteria play in legumes?	They fix nitrogen in legume roots.
66	Name four diseases caused by bacteria mentioned in the text.	Cholera, typhoid, tetanus and citrus canker.
67	How do bacteria mainly reproduce?	Mainly by fission.
68	What do bacteria produce under unfavourable conditions?	Spores.
69	How does sexual reproduction occur in bacteria?	By a primitive type of DNA transfer from one bacterium to another.
70	What is special about Mycoplasma?	They completely lack a cell wall.
71	What is the size characteristic of Mycoplasma?	They are the smallest living cells known.
72	Can Mycoplasma survive without oxygen?	Yes, they can survive without oxygen.
73	Are many Mycoplasma pathogenic?	Yes, many Mycoplasma are pathogenic in animals and plants.
74	Which organisms are included under Kingdom Protista?	All single-celled eukaryotes.
75	Name the groups included under Protista in this book.	Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds and Protozoans.
76	What is the primary habitat of Protists?	They are primarily aquatic.
77	Why is Kingdom Protista considered a link with other kingdoms?	It forms a link with kingdoms dealing with plants, animals and fungi.
78	What cellular features are present in protists as eukaryotes?	A well-defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
79	What locomotory structures may protists possess?	Flagella or cilia.
80	How do protists reproduce?	Both asexually and sexually through cell fusion and zygote formation.
81	Which organisms are included under Chrysophytes?	Diatoms and golden algae (desmids).
82	Where are Chrysophytes found?	In freshwater and marine environments.
83	What is plankton?	Microscopic organisms that float passively in water currents.
84	What is the mode of nutrition in most Chrysophytes?	Photosynthetic.
85	Describe the cell wall of diatoms.	It forms two thin overlapping shells fitting together like a soap box.
86	What substance is embedded in diatom cell walls?	Silica.
87	Why are diatom cell walls indestructible?	Because they are embedded with silica.
88	What is diatomaceous earth?	Large deposits of diatom cell walls accumulated over billions of years.
89	Mention two uses of diatomaceous earth.	Polishing and filtration of oils and syrups.
90	What ecological role do diatoms play in oceans?	They are the chief producers in oceans.
91	What is the habitat of most dinoflagellates?	Marine habitat.
92	What pigments may make dinoflagellates appear different colours?	Yellow, green, brown, blue or red pigments.
93	What type of cell wall do dinoflagellates possess?	Cell wall with stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface.
94	How many flagella are present in most dinoflagellates?	Two flagella.
95	What is red tide?	Rapid multiplication of red dinoflagellates making the sea appear red.
96	Which dinoflagellate example is associated with red tides?	Gonyaulax.
97	What harmful effect can red tides cause?	Toxins released may kill marine animals such as fishes.
98	Where are most euglenoids found?	In stagnant freshwater.
99	What replaces the cell wall in euglenoids?	A protein-rich layer called pellicle.
100	What is the function of pellicle in euglenoids?	It makes the body flexible.
101	How many flagella are present in euglenoids?	Two flagella, one short and one long.
102	What is the mode of nutrition in all protozoans?	All protozoans are heterotrophs.
103	How do protozoans generally live?	As predators or parasites.
104	Protozoans are believed to be primitive relatives of which kingdom?	Animal kingdom.
105	Name the four major groups of protozoans.	Amoeboid protozoans, flagellated protozoans, ciliated protozoans and sporozoans.
106	Where do amoeboid protozoans live?	In freshwater, seawater or moist soil.
107	How do amoeboid protozoans capture prey?	By putting out pseudopodia (false feet).
108	Which protozoan is an example of amoeboid protozoans?	Amoeba.
109	What is present on the surface of marine amoeboid protozoans?	Silica shells.
110	Name a parasitic amoeboid protozoan.	Entamoeba.
111	What are the characteristics of flagellated protozoans?	They may be free-living or parasitic and possess flagella.
112	Which disease is caused by parasitic flagellated protozoans?	Sleeping sickness.
113	Name the protozoan that causes sleeping sickness.	Trypanosoma.
114	Why are ciliated protozoans actively moving organisms?	Due to the presence of thousands of cilia.
115	What is the feeding cavity in ciliated protozoans called?	Gullet.
116	How does food enter the gullet in ciliated protozoans?	Coordinated movement of cilia steers water laden with food into the gullet.
117	Name an example of ciliated protozoans.	Paramoecium.
118	What is a key characteristic of sporozoans?	They possess an infectious spore-like stage in their life cycle.
119	Which protozoan causes malaria?	Plasmodium.
120	What type of organisms are fungi?	Heterotrophic organisms.
121	What kind of diversity do fungi show?	Great diversity in morphology and habitat.
122	Name the unicellular fungus used in making bread and beer.	Yeast.
123	Which fungus causes wheat rust disease?	Puccinia.
124	Which fungus is a source of antibiotics?	Penicillium.
125	What is meant by fungi being cosmopolitan?	They occur in air, water, soil and on plants and animals.
126	Which environmental conditions favour fungal growth?	Warm and humid conditions.
127	Why is food kept in a refrigerator according to the text?	To prevent food from spoilage due to bacterial or fungal infections.
128	Which fungi are unicellular exceptions?	Yeasts.
129	What is the body structure of most fungi?	Filamentous with long thread-like structures called hyphae.
130	What is mycelium?	The network of hyphae.
131	What are coenocytic hyphae?	Continuous tubes filled with multinucleated cytoplasm.
132	What are septate hyphae?	Hyphae having septae or cross walls.
133	What are fungal cell walls made of?	Chitin and polysaccharides.
134	What are saprophytes?	Fungi that absorb soluble organic matter from dead substrates.
135	What are parasitic fungi?	Fungi that depend on living plants and animals.
136	What are lichens?	Symbiotic associations of fungi with algae.
137	What is mycorrhiza?	Association of fungi with roots of higher plants.
138	Name the vegetative methods of reproduction in fungi.	Fragmentation, fission and budding.
139	Name the asexual spores in fungi.	Conidia, sporangiospores and zoospores.
140	Name the sexual spores in fungi.	Oospores, ascospores and basidiospores.
141	What are fruiting bodies in fungi?	Distinct structures in which spores are produced.
142	What type of mycelium is found in ascomycetes?	Branched and septate mycelium.
143	What are conidia?	Asexual spores of ascomycetes produced exogenously.
144	Where are conidia produced?	On special mycelium called conidiophores.
145	What happens when conidia germinate?	They produce mycelium.
146	What are ascospores?	Sexual spores produced endogenously in sac-like asci.
147	What are ascocarps?	Fruiting bodies in which asci are arranged.
148	Name some examples of ascomycetes.	Aspergillus, Claviceps and Neurospora.
149	Which fungus is widely used in biochemical and genetic work?	Neurospora.
150	Which members of ascomycetes are considered delicacies?	Morels and truffles.
151	What are common forms of basidiomycetes?	Mushrooms, bracket fungi and puffballs.
152	Where do basidiomycetes commonly grow?	In soil, on logs, tree stumps and living plant bodies as parasites.
153	Name two parasitic basidiomycetes.	Rusts and smuts.
154	Describe the mycelium of basidiomycetes.	Branched and septate (Asexual spores are generally not found).
155	How do basidiomycetes commonly reproduce vegetatively?	By fragmentation.
156	Are sex organs present in basidiomycetes?	No, sex organs are absent.
157	How is plasmogamy brought about in basidiomycetes?	By fusion of two vegetative or somatic cells of different strains or genotypes.
158	What type of structure is formed after plasmogamy in basidiomycetes?	A dikaryotic structure.
159	Where do karyogamy and meiosis occur in basidiomycetes?	In the basidium.
160	What are basidiospores?	Spores produced exogenously on basidia.
161	What are basidiocarps?	Fruiting bodies in which basidia are arranged.
162	Name common members of basidiomycetes.	Agaricus, Ustilago and Puccinia.
163	Why are deuteromycetes called imperfect fungi?	Because only their asexual or vegetative phases are known.
164	What happens when sexual forms of deuteromycetes are discovered?	They are moved to their appropriate classes.
165	By which spores do deuteromycetes reproduce?	Asexual spores called conidia.
166	Describe the mycelium of deuteromycetes.	Septate and branched.
167	What role do many deuteromycetes play in nature?	They decompose litter and help in mineral cycling.
168	Name examples of deuteromycetes.	Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.
169	Which organisms are included in Kingdom Plantae?	All eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms commonly called plants.
170	Name examples of partially heterotrophic plants.	Insectivorous plants and parasites.
171	Name two insectivorous plants mentioned in the text.	Bladderwort and Venus fly trap.
172	Name the parasitic plant mentioned in the text.	Cuscuta.
173	What are the features of plant cells?	Eukaryotic structure with prominent chloroplasts and cellulose cell wall.
174	Which groups are included in Plantae?	Algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms.
175	What are the two phases in the plant life cycle?	Diploid sporophytic phase and haploid gametophytic phase.
176	What is alternation of generations?	Alternation between diploid sporophytic and haploid gametophytic phases.
177	What are the key characteristics of Kingdom Animalia?	Heterotrophic, eukaryotic, multicellular organisms lacking cell walls.
178	On whom do animals depend for food?	Directly or indirectly on plants.
179	Where do animals digest their food?	In an internal cavity.
180	In what form do animals store food reserves?	Glycogen or fat.
181	What is the mode of nutrition in animals?	Holozoic nutrition by ingestion of food.
182	Why were viruses not included in classification systems?	Because they are not considered truly living as they lack cellular structure.
183	What is the structure of viruses outside the host cell?	An inert crystalline structure.
184	What happens when viruses infect a host cell?	They take over the machinery of the host cell to replicate themselves, killing the host.
185	Who recognised the causal organism of tobacco mosaic disease in 1892?	Dmitri Ivanowsky.
186	Why were viruses considered smaller than bacteria?	Because they passed through bacteria-proof filters.
187	What name did Beijerinck give to the infectious fluid?	Contagium vivum fluidum.
188	Who showed that viruses could be crystallised?	W.M. Stanley (1935).
189	What do virus crystals mainly consist of?	Proteins.
190	What is the nature of viruses outside their host cell?	Inert.
191	What type of parasites are viruses?	Obligate parasites.
192	What genetic material is found in viruses?	Either RNA or DNA.
193	Can a virus contain both RNA and DNA?	No, no virus contains both RNA and DNA.
194	What is a virus chemically described as?	A nucleoprotein.
195	What type of genetic material is usually found in plant viruses?	In general, single-stranded RNA.
196	What type of genetic material is found in animal viruses?	Either single or double-stranded RNA or double-stranded DNA.
197	What are bacteriophages?	Viruses that infect bacteria.
198	What type of genetic material do bacteriophages usually possess?	Double-stranded DNA.
199	What is the protein coat of a virus called?	Capsid.
200	What are capsomeres?	Small subunits forming the capsid.
201	In what forms are capsomeres arranged?	Helical or polyhedral geometric forms.
202	Name four diseases caused by viruses mentioned in the text.	Mumps, smallpox, herpes and influenza.
203	Which viral disease in humans is specifically mentioned?	AIDS.
204	Mention symptoms of viral diseases in plants.	Mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing, vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth.
205	Who discovered viroids?	T.O. Diener (1971).
206	Which disease is caused by viroids?	Potato spindle tuber disease.
207	How are viroids different from viruses?	Viroids are free RNA lacking a protein coat.
208	What is the molecular weight characteristic of viroid RNA?	Low molecular weight.
209	What are prions?	Infectious agents made of abnormally folded proteins.
210	Which disease in cattle is caused by prions?	Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease).
211	Which human disease is analogous to mad cow disease?	Creutzfeldt - Jacob disease (CJD).
212	What are lichens?	Symbiotic associations between algae and fungi.
213	What is the algal component of lichens called?	Phycobiont.
214	What is the fungal component of lichens called?	Mycobiont.
215	Which component of lichens is autotrophic?	Phycobiont.
216	Which component of lichens is heterotrophic?	Mycobiont.
217	What role does the algal partner play in lichens?	It prepares food for fungi.
218	What role does the fungal partner play in lichens?	It provides shelter and absorbs mineral nutrients and water.
219	Why are lichens considered good pollution indicators?	They do not grow in polluted areas.
220	Who first proposed biological classification on the basis of simple morphological characters?	Aristotle.
221	Which scientist classified living organisms into Plantae and Animalia?	Linnaeus.
222	Which scientist proposed the five kingdom classification?	Whittaker.
223	Name the five kingdoms proposed by Whittaker.	Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
224	Which kingdom includes bacteria in the five kingdom classification?	Kingdom Monera.
225	What type of distribution do bacteria show?	Cosmopolitan distribution.
226	Which organisms show the most extensive metabolic diversity?	Bacteria.
227	What are the two modes of nutrition in bacteria?	Autotrophic and heterotrophic.
228	Which kingdom includes all single-celled eukaryotes?	Kingdom Protista.
229	Name the groups included under Protista.	Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime-moulds and Protozoans.
230	What cellular structures are present in protists?	Defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
231	How do protists reproduce?	Both asexually and sexually.
232	What mode of nutrition is common in most fungi?	Saprophytic mode of nutrition.
233	Name the four classes of Kingdom Fungi.	Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes and Deuteromycetes.
234	Which organisms are included in Kingdom Plantae?	All eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms.
235	Name the plant groups included in Plantae.	Algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms.
236	What phenomenon is shown in the plant life cycle?	Alternation of generations.
237	What are the two generations involved in alternation of generations?	Gametophytic and sporophytic generations.
238	What are the characteristics of organisms in Kingdom Animalia?	Heterotrophic, eukaryotic and multicellular organisms lacking cell walls.
239	What is the mode of nutrition in animals?	Holozoic nutrition by ingestion of food.
240	What is phycobiont in lichens?	The algal component of lichen.
241	What is mycobiont in lichens?	The fungal component of lichen.
242	What is the nature of cell walls in diatoms?	Cell walls are embedded with silica and are indestructible.